Hello, class. Welcome to today's lesson.
The comma is the most useful and most common punctuation mark in the English language. It's also one of the most frequently misused.
1. Separating independent clauses.
An independent clause is a part of a sentence that has a subject and a predicate. (A predicate is the verb and anything after it.) "Tammy took her kids to the park." In that sentence, "Tammy" is the subject and "took her kids to the park" is the predicate. When you have two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction, they must be separated by a comma. The basic coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, so and yet.
The car is blue, and the house is green.
I enjoy playing basketball, but Alex enjoys playing soccer.
You do not need a comma if the sentence is a combination of an independent clause and a dependent clause. In a dependent clause, the subject is never stated but usually implied.
Tammy took her kids to the park and bought them ice cream.
The spider rolled the bug in silk but put it aside to eat later.
If you need a visual example, follow this test. Put your hands out in front of you with your pinky and thumb extended and your other fingers curled. Place your two thumbs so they are touching. Imagine that this is your sentence. You have successfully broken your sentence up with the conjunction being where your thumbs meet and the spread of your fingers the two clauses. Now, are both clauses independent clauses, or is the second one a dependent clause? If they're both independent clauses, you need a comma.
2. Separating introductory clauses from the main sentence
Introductory clauses include:
For example, ...
According to ... ,
Rather than ... ,
To find out if you have an introductory clause in your sentence, ask yourself "Where is the main part of this sentence? Where is the subject and the verb?". There MUST be a comma after the introductory clause.
According to Davidson's report, our company lost $50 million last year. -- In this sentence, "According to Davidson's report," is the introductory clause. Without it, "Our company lost $50 million last year." is still a complete sentence.
Because Andrea messed up the paperwork, she will be written up.
Many sources say that if the introductory clause is short, you don't need one, but you can put it if you want. These are called stylistic commas. It's up to the writer to decide. I happen to like them. Examples of short introductory clauses are:
Today we went to the park. Or with a comma: Today, we went to the park.
This evening we are going to a movie. Or with a comma: This evening, we are going to a movie.
But be careful. Sometimes, the comma after an introductory clause is necessary to avoid confusion
Soon after starting the car began making funny noises. -- If you read through that quickly, your mind may try to insert a pause after car, when the correct spot for the comma is after starting.
3. Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs include: therefore, however, consequently, on the other hand. When used at the beginning of the sentence, there must be a comma AFTER a conjunctive adverb. When used in the middle of the sentence there must be a comma BEFORE and AFTER a conjucntive adverb.
4. Series
You should always use a comma to separate a list of three or more things.
Our company offers health benefits, discounts and the possiblity of advancement.
The primary colors are red, yellow and blue.
I like running, biking and hiking.
There is a debate about what is called "the serial comma." The serial comma comes before the "and" in a list. In the three examples above, the serial comma is missing just because I prefer not to use it. It is another example of the stylistic comma, and it is up to the writer on whether or not to include it. Some writers, however, drop the serial comma, especially in fields such as journalism and business.
5. Coordinate adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives that are loosely connected to describe an item. You have to have commas in between each one, but you can mix them up and not lose any meaning
A rusty, dented, broken-down car was left behind. vs A dented, broken-down, rusty car was left behind.
6. Nonessential elements
Use a comma to set off nonessential elements. A nonessential element provides a bit more information, but it's not necessary for the sentence to be grammatically correct.
Many other illnesses, like the common cold and back strain, are self-limiting and will improve in time.
Whether at the beginning, end or middle of a sentence, the nonessential element should be offset by commas.
7. Using Commas in Dialogue
This is a big one that I notice a lot of people have trouble with. Writing dialogue can be difficult enough. Toss in having to remember how to punctuate it, and it can be down right intimidating. The key is to write so much dialogue that the punctuation becomes second nature. Even if your dialogue doesn't go into any story, if you practice, you will succeed. This can be difficult to teach over a computer screen so bear with me.
1. "I don't like it," Adam said. Please note the construction of this first sentence. Open quote. Sentence. COMMA. End quote. Character action. "Sentence," Character said. The comma goes after the sentence but INSIDE the end quote.
2. "What's not to like?" Joe asked. In this sentence, no comma is needed because it's a question. The question mark goes on the INSIDE of the end quote. "Question?" Character asked. This same construction is used for dialogue ending in an exclamation point.
3. "It just seems too easy." This doesn't have a dialogue tag, because it doesn't need one, but that's a different lesson.
4. "That's the point." Joe smiled. Please note that there isn't a comma at all. That's because Joe smiled isn't a dialogue tag. Dialogue tags should only be words to describe speaking. You can't smile a phrase. You can smile while saying it. "That's the point," Joe said, smiling. Other common missued dialogue tags are shrugged, nodded and grinned.
5. Shaking his head, Adam said, "You do it. I'm out." This last example, as well as the smiling example above, illustrate my next point. Whenever you have the character doing something while talking, it must be offset by a comma. In this sentence, Adam is shaking his head while he says something, so the shaking his head is offset with a comma. Far too often people either leave the comma out, use a period, or put the dialogue into a whole new paragraph.
Also, it doesn't matter whether you put the dialogue tag before or after the dialogue, you still need to use a comma.
"Stop teasing me," he whined.
Jason asked, "What next?"
Claudia said, "I totally don't get this at all."
Like I said, dialogue is tricky and difficult to teach. These are the basics. The best thing you can do is practice, practice and practice some more.
8. Markers of direct address
This is one that I end up fighting with people about. You should ALWAYS put commas around words that indicate that you're talking directly to someone.
Yes, the stock market sucks right now. No, I don't think it's going to be any better next year.
Jake, do you think you could not be a jerk every now and then?
Well, no. I happen to like being a jerk, Cathy.
These direct address words usually come at the beginning and end of a sentence, but if you do use one in the middle of the sentence, you have to put commas around it.
Do you really think, Grace, that Professor Wilson will postpone the test?
Frequent direct address words and phrases are yes, no, of course, well, don't you agree? and oh. Also, ANY time you refer to someone using a name or title, it has to be set off by a comma.
"Eric, I love you."
"Really, Katy? Funny thing. You remember Jessica?"
"What are you saying, you jerk?"
In the last sentence, you jerk is separated by a comma because it's a title replacing the name.
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(All of this information is from The New Century Handbook by Christine A. Hult and Thomas N. Huckin. Fabulous book. Everyone should buy one.)
Sunday, May 10, 2009
Thursday, April 9, 2009
txt u l8r
The more text and instant messages are used, the more the chance these abbreviations will just become visuals to our brain. As these icons evolve, it is quite possible that they will become a permanent fixture in the English language.
In Scott McCloud’s book The Vocabulary of Comics, he differentiates between three types of icons: those used for language, science and communication; those used as symbols and those used as pictures (McCloud). Language, science and communication icons include the alphabet, numbers, punctuation, dollar signs, etc. Symbols represent concepts, ideas, and philosophies. Pictures are images designed to resemble their subjects. Text and instant messaging use all three of these ideas. To get a better understanding of what those three types of icons are, click on this picture to the left. (To get back to this blog, just hit the back button on your browser.) Each one of those icons is a visual representation of something else. If you understand the meaning of an icon, then you won't be surprised when I tell you that there is nothing in that picture.
LANGUAGE, SCIENCE and COMMUNICATION
This is not a letter. Letters are in the in first group of icons: language, science and communication icons. McCloud says, “Words are totally abstract icons. That is, they bear no resemblance at all to the real McCoy” (McCloud). Cow. I just typed the word, but I didn’t conjure up an actual cow. It isn’t a cow, but when you see that word, you picture in your mind what a cow is. The three letters C-O-W are icons that give you a visual picture. A female hippopotamus is also called a cow. How many of you pictured a hippo when you saw the word “cow”? Text messaging has its basis in the alphabet, numbers and punctuation. When texting first started, many cell phone companies charged per character, so it made sense to type “u” instead of “you.” Texting also evolved into a way of quick communication, so common phrases became abbreviations. WU for “What’s up?” WRUD for “What are you doing?” IDK for “I don’t know.” Instead of spelling out numbers, texters use 1, 2, 3, 4., etc. Even full words have succumbed to the abbreviations. “Tomorrow” is 2mrw. “Before” is b4. These abbreviations have no written meaning, but they are abstractions used as visual cues to convey a meaning.
Punctuation is all but non-existent in texting. The only reason why things are capitalized in texts nowadays is because the program in the phone or computer automatically recognizes end punctuation (period, question, mark) and then capitalizes the first word of the next sentence. Parentheses, dashes, colons, semi-colons and quotes are rarely seen in text messages unless they're being used to make emoticons.
SYMBOLS
This is not love. A heart only represents the concept of love. It's a symbol, the second brand of icons. Like with the first icon, the texter is relaying a message to the reader, but in this case, it's not a concrete question or comment. It's a concept. Text messaging is becoming a way of communicating through symbols. When people think about text and instant messaging with visuals, usually only emoticons are considered, but when someone types LOL, you don't actually see the other person “laughing out loud." LOL gives you an abstract way to know that the texter is amused. It's a concept that is represented throught the symbol LOL. It is quite possible that the texter didn’t even “laugh out loud.” Perhaps the texter is in a quiet computer lab, and actually laughing out loud would disturb others. These three icons LOL have merged into one symbol. They have become an idea used to express amusement. Like the word cow, LOL is an abstraction that gives you a mental picture. Even standard punctuation marks have been used to create symbols in texting. A less than sign < put together with the number 3 forms a heart. <3. The at symbol @ put with a couple of dashes and a greater than forms a flower. @>----
PICTURES
This is not a cow. Even pictures aren't actually what the image is. They're just a visual representation designed to resemble their subject. This idea brings in the other common tool in texting: emoticons. Emoticons are “punctuation marks that viewed sideways resemble facial expressions” (Krhon). These pictures resemble their subjects. Emoticons may not be as concrete as the picture of the cow, because instead of resembling a concrete image, they resemble ideas, meanings and emotions. The first emoticon consisted of a colon : and an end parentheses ). Put together :) and looked at sideways, it resembles a smiling face. A colon : and a beginning parenthesis ( creates an image of a frowning face :( . In text and instant messaging these emoticons are used to convey meaning. Like LOL, a smiling face shows amusement or general contentment. It can also be used to signify a joke, a helpful device when writing electronically. There are many instances of e-mails and comments being interpreted in the wrong way. The sender meant it as a joke, and the reader was offended. An emoticon won’t always solve this problem, but it helps. These emoticons are a visual way of trying to convey meaning that outside of verbal communication is usually lost. Unfortunately, this doesn't always work. "You really are a jerk. :) " The smiling face is supposed to show that the texter is joking, but the reader was still called a jerk. It's all about how the reader interprets the emoticon. Therein lies the problem. Texters try to use emoticons to convey meaning, but it doesn't always work because the reader infers it differently than the texter meant.
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE?
The most obvious result of text messaging is the breakdown of communication between generations. Texting and other huge leaps in technology have created a generation gap. It’s always been difficult for parents to decode teenage language because slang terms change so much. The abbreviations of text and instant messaging have made it more difficult. AT&T made a series of commercials about unlimited text. In one commercial, a girl's phone is taken away because she texted too much. She speaks in text: IDK, OMG, TISNF. The mom easily translates what she’s saying, but then stutters a bit when she tries to talk like that as well. This commercial and others like them are hypothetical situations used as a marketing tool, but could it also be a look into our future?
Could this be the way humans will communicate in twenty years? Will you open a blog up like this one and see something like this: TMHTOTW! This could mean "Text messaging has taken over the world!" Or it could mean, "The mice have taken our tomato wedges!" Will you understand it? And when you do see that and understand it, are you reading? Or is your brain doing what it does when it sees the word “cow”? Is it turning this series of random icons into a visual? Text and instant messaging are far from replacing communication. It's not a replacement, but just another form, another type of language, and learning any type of language is a visual experience. There's nothing wrong with using text and instant messaging, as long as they're used appropriately. The human being is adaptable. As text and instant messaging increases, we will grow used to its visual aspect. It may happen sooner than you think, because text and instant messaging are more popular than EVR B4.
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Simple words and phrases have been turned into abstract forms of visual communication.
Emoticons add even more visual cues to text messaging. They turn key strokes into pictures that can then be used to convey a texter's meaning or emotions.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Text messaging has already invaded the world of books. Lauren Myracle is the author of the three books in this series called "Internet Girls" Like many teen novels, this series focuses on the hardships of high school, but they are written entirely in text and each page looks like a computer screen.
In 2005, a girl in Scotland turned in an essay about her summer vacation. It was written entirely in text message form.
It said: "My smmr hols wr CWOT. B4, we used 2go2 NY 2C my bro, his GF & thr 3 :- kids FTF. ILNY, it’s a gr8 plc."
Translation: My summer holidays were a complete waste of time. Before, we used to go to New York to see my brother, his girlfriend and their three screaming kids face to face. I love New York. It’s a great place.
(Carrington)
A school essay is not an appropriate place for writing in abbreviations. Any type of leniency in the school will only increase a student's lack of ability to communicate effectively. Text and instant messaging abbreviations should only be used in text and instant messaging.
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Sources:
Carrington, Victoria. Txting? the end of civilization (again)?Cambridge Journal of Education (CJE) 2005 June; 35 (2): 161-75. Retrieved from EBSCOHost on 04/22/09
Krohn, Franklin B. A General Approach to Using Emoticons as Nonverbal Communication. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 2004; 34 (4): 321-28. Retrieved from EBSCOHost on 04/22/09
McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: HarperCollins, 1194. 24-37
List of emoticons were retrieved from http://www.2lifex.com/exchange/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/graphical-and-keyboard-character-emoticons-smileys1.jpg on 4/22/09
"Internet Girls" are property of Lauren Myracle
Video property of Cingular. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nIUcRJX9-o on 4/22/09
In Scott McCloud’s book The Vocabulary of Comics, he differentiates between three types of icons: those used for language, science and communication; those used as symbols and those used as pictures (McCloud). Language, science and communication icons include the alphabet, numbers, punctuation, dollar signs, etc. Symbols represent concepts, ideas, and philosophies. Pictures are images designed to resemble their subjects. Text and instant messaging use all three of these ideas. To get a better understanding of what those three types of icons are, click on this picture to the left. (To get back to this blog, just hit the back button on your browser.) Each one of those icons is a visual representation of something else. If you understand the meaning of an icon, then you won't be surprised when I tell you that there is nothing in that picture.LANGUAGE, SCIENCE and COMMUNICATION
This is not a letter. Letters are in the in first group of icons: language, science and communication icons. McCloud says, “Words are totally abstract icons. That is, they bear no resemblance at all to the real McCoy” (McCloud). Cow. I just typed the word, but I didn’t conjure up an actual cow. It isn’t a cow, but when you see that word, you picture in your mind what a cow is. The three letters C-O-W are icons that give you a visual picture. A female hippopotamus is also called a cow. How many of you pictured a hippo when you saw the word “cow”? Text messaging has its basis in the alphabet, numbers and punctuation. When texting first started, many cell phone companies charged per character, so it made sense to type “u” instead of “you.” Texting also evolved into a way of quick communication, so common phrases became abbreviations. WU for “What’s up?” WRUD for “What are you doing?” IDK for “I don’t know.” Instead of spelling out numbers, texters use 1, 2, 3, 4., etc. Even full words have succumbed to the abbreviations. “Tomorrow” is 2mrw. “Before” is b4. These abbreviations have no written meaning, but they are abstractions used as visual cues to convey a meaning.Punctuation is all but non-existent in texting. The only reason why things are capitalized in texts nowadays is because the program in the phone or computer automatically recognizes end punctuation (period, question, mark) and then capitalizes the first word of the next sentence. Parentheses, dashes, colons, semi-colons and quotes are rarely seen in text messages unless they're being used to make emoticons.
SYMBOLS
This is not love. A heart only represents the concept of love. It's a symbol, the second brand of icons. Like with the first icon, the texter is relaying a message to the reader, but in this case, it's not a concrete question or comment. It's a concept. Text messaging is becoming a way of communicating through symbols. When people think about text and instant messaging with visuals, usually only emoticons are considered, but when someone types LOL, you don't actually see the other person “laughing out loud." LOL gives you an abstract way to know that the texter is amused. It's a concept that is represented throught the symbol LOL. It is quite possible that the texter didn’t even “laugh out loud.” Perhaps the texter is in a quiet computer lab, and actually laughing out loud would disturb others. These three icons LOL have merged into one symbol. They have become an idea used to express amusement. Like the word cow, LOL is an abstraction that gives you a mental picture. Even standard punctuation marks have been used to create symbols in texting. A less than sign < put together with the number 3 forms a heart. <3. The at symbol @ put with a couple of dashes and a greater than forms a flower. @>----PICTURES
This is not a cow. Even pictures aren't actually what the image is. They're just a visual representation designed to resemble their subject. This idea brings in the other common tool in texting: emoticons. Emoticons are “punctuation marks that viewed sideways resemble facial expressions” (Krhon). These pictures resemble their subjects. Emoticons may not be as concrete as the picture of the cow, because instead of resembling a concrete image, they resemble ideas, meanings and emotions. The first emoticon consisted of a colon : and an end parentheses ). Put together :) and looked at sideways, it resembles a smiling face. A colon : and a beginning parenthesis ( creates an image of a frowning face :( . In text and instant messaging these emoticons are used to convey meaning. Like LOL, a smiling face shows amusement or general contentment. It can also be used to signify a joke, a helpful device when writing electronically. There are many instances of e-mails and comments being interpreted in the wrong way. The sender meant it as a joke, and the reader was offended. An emoticon won’t always solve this problem, but it helps. These emoticons are a visual way of trying to convey meaning that outside of verbal communication is usually lost. Unfortunately, this doesn't always work. "You really are a jerk. :) " The smiling face is supposed to show that the texter is joking, but the reader was still called a jerk. It's all about how the reader interprets the emoticon. Therein lies the problem. Texters try to use emoticons to convey meaning, but it doesn't always work because the reader infers it differently than the texter meant.WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE?
The most obvious result of text messaging is the breakdown of communication between generations. Texting and other huge leaps in technology have created a generation gap. It’s always been difficult for parents to decode teenage language because slang terms change so much. The abbreviations of text and instant messaging have made it more difficult. AT&T made a series of commercials about unlimited text. In one commercial, a girl's phone is taken away because she texted too much. She speaks in text: IDK, OMG, TISNF. The mom easily translates what she’s saying, but then stutters a bit when she tries to talk like that as well. This commercial and others like them are hypothetical situations used as a marketing tool, but could it also be a look into our future?
Could this be the way humans will communicate in twenty years? Will you open a blog up like this one and see something like this: TMHTOTW! This could mean "Text messaging has taken over the world!" Or it could mean, "The mice have taken our tomato wedges!" Will you understand it? And when you do see that and understand it, are you reading? Or is your brain doing what it does when it sees the word “cow”? Is it turning this series of random icons into a visual? Text and instant messaging are far from replacing communication. It's not a replacement, but just another form, another type of language, and learning any type of language is a visual experience. There's nothing wrong with using text and instant messaging, as long as they're used appropriately. The human being is adaptable. As text and instant messaging increases, we will grow used to its visual aspect. It may happen sooner than you think, because text and instant messaging are more popular than EVR B4.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Simple words and phrases have been turned into abstract forms of visual communication.
Emoticons add even more visual cues to text messaging. They turn key strokes into pictures that can then be used to convey a texter's meaning or emotions.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Text messaging has already invaded the world of books. Lauren Myracle is the author of the three books in this series called "Internet Girls" Like many teen novels, this series focuses on the hardships of high school, but they are written entirely in text and each page looks like a computer screen.
In 2005, a girl in Scotland turned in an essay about her summer vacation. It was written entirely in text message form.
It said: "My smmr hols wr CWOT. B4, we used 2go2 NY 2C my bro, his GF & thr 3 :- kids FTF. ILNY, it’s a gr8 plc."
Translation: My summer holidays were a complete waste of time. Before, we used to go to New York to see my brother, his girlfriend and their three screaming kids face to face. I love New York. It’s a great place.
(Carrington)
A school essay is not an appropriate place for writing in abbreviations. Any type of leniency in the school will only increase a student's lack of ability to communicate effectively. Text and instant messaging abbreviations should only be used in text and instant messaging.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sources:
Carrington, Victoria. Txting? the end of civilization (again)?Cambridge Journal of Education (CJE) 2005 June; 35 (2): 161-75. Retrieved from EBSCOHost on 04/22/09
Krohn, Franklin B. A General Approach to Using Emoticons as Nonverbal Communication. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 2004; 34 (4): 321-28. Retrieved from EBSCOHost on 04/22/09
McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: HarperCollins, 1194. 24-37
List of emoticons were retrieved from http://www.2lifex.com/exchange/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/graphical-and-keyboard-character-emoticons-smileys1.jpg on 4/22/09
"Internet Girls" are property of Lauren Myracle
Video property of Cingular. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nIUcRJX9-o on 4/22/09
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